1500年以后，有许多迹象表明世界历史的新时代开始了，例如美洲的发现和第一批欧洲企业进入亚洲。这个“新时代”是由众多文明中的一个——欧洲文明——的惊人成功所主导的。所有国家的事件之间有越来越多的持续联系，但这要由欧洲的努力来解释。欧洲人最终成为了“全球的主人”，他们利用自己的优势使世界成为一个整体。这导致了世界历史的统一，直到今天仍然可以发现。政治、帝国建设和军事扩张只是其中的一小部分。除了全球经济一体化，还有一个重要得多的过程正在进行:假设和思想的传播。结果就是“同一个世界”。独立文明的时代已经结束。1500年以来的历史可以用一系列的战争和暴力斗争来描述。 Obviously men in different countries did not like another much more than their predecessors did. However, they were much more alike than their ancestors were, which was an outcome of what we now call modernization. One could also say that the world was Europeanized, for modernization was a matter of ideas and techniques which have an European origin. It was with the modernization of Europe that the unification of world history began. A great change in Europe was the starting-point of modern history. There was a continuing economic predominance of agriculture. Agricultural progress increasingly took two main forms: Orientation towards the market, and technical innovation. They were interconnected. A large population in the neighborhood meant a market and therefore an incentive. Even in the fifteenth century the inhabitants of so called ³low countries² were already leaders in the techniques of intensive cultivation. Better drainage opened the way to better pasture and to a larger animal population. Agricultural improvement favored the reorganization of land in bigger farms, the reduction of the number of small holders, the employment of wage labor, and high capital investment in buildings, drainage and machinery. In the late sixteenth century one response to the pressure of expanding population upon slowly growing resources had been the promoting of emigration.
到1800年在美国，欧洲人对移居海外的新土地做出了巨大贡献。这一点在16世纪就已经很明显了当时世界贸易开始了长期的扩张一直持续到1930年。首先，它进一步推动了经济重心从欧洲南部向西北欧的转移，从地中海向大西洋的转移，这一点已经提到过。其中一个原因是政治上的麻烦和战争，比如16世纪早期摧毁意大利的战争。安特卫普在16世纪取得了巨大的商业成功，尽管它在几十年的政治和经济灾难后崩溃了。在17世纪，阿姆斯特丹和伦敦超过了它。在每一种情况下，以人口稠密的内陆地区为基础的重要贸易都为制造业、服务业和银行业的多元化提供了利润。阿姆斯特丹银行和英格兰银行在十七世纪已经是国际经济力量。在它们周围聚集着其他从事信贷和金融业务的银行和商行。利率下降，作为中世纪发明的汇票得到了广泛使用，成为国际贸易的主要金融工具。 This was the beginning of the increasing use of paper, instead of bullion. In the eighteenth century came the first European paper currencies and the invention of the check. Joint stock companies generated another form of negotiable security, their own shares. Quotation of these in London coffee-houses in the seventeenth century was overtaken by the foundation of the London Stock Exchange. By 1800 similar institutions existed in many other countries. It was also the time of some spectacular disastrous investment projects, one of which was the great English South Sea Bubble. But all the time the world was growing more commercial, more used to the idea of employing money to make money, and was supplying itself with the apparatus of modern capitalism. One effect quickly appeared in the much greater attention paid to commercial questions in diplomatic negotiation from the later seventeenth century and in the fact that countries were prepared to fight over them. The English and Dutch went to war over trade in 1652. This opened a long era during which they, the French and Spanish, fought again and again over quarrels in which questions of trade were important. Governments not only looked after their merchants by going to war to uphold their interests, but also intervened in other ways in the working of the commercial economy. One advantage they could offer were monopoly privileges to a company under a charter; this made the raising of capital easier by offering some security for a return. Such activities closely involved government and therefore the concerns of businessmen shaped both, policy and law. The most impressive structural development in European commerce was the sudden new importance to it of overseas trade from the second half of the seventeenth century onwards.
这是经济活动从地中海向北欧转移的一部分。在十七世纪晚期。不断增长的人口和适当运输的保证(水运总是比陆运便宜)慢慢地建立起了国际谷物贸易。造船业本身促进了沥青、亚麻或木材等商品的流通。涉及的范围超过了欧洲的消费;这一切都发生在殖民帝国不断壮大的背景下。到十八世纪，已经出现了一种海洋经济和国际贸易共同体，它在全球范围内进行商业活动，并为此进行斗争和阴谋。在这种经济中，奴隶扮演着重要且不断增长的角色，其中大多数是非洲黑人。在欧洲，奴隶制那时已经完全消失了。现在，它将在其他大陆进行大规模的扩张。 Soon a permanent slaving station was set up in West Africa. This shows the rapid discovery of the profitability of the new traffic. It was already clear that it was a business of brutality. As the search for slaves went further inland, it became simpler to rely on local potentates who would round up captives and barter them wholesale. Early industrial centers grew by accretion, often around the centers of established European industries closely related to agriculture. This long continued to be true. These old trades had created concentrations of supporting industry. Antwerp had been the great port of entry to Europe for English cloth; as a result, finishing and dyeing establishments appeared there to work up further commodities flowing through the port. The twentieth century needs no reminders that social change can quickly follow economic change. We have little belief in the immutability of social forms and institutions. Three hundred years ago, many men and women believed them to be virtually God-given and the result was that although social changes took place in the aftermath of inflation, they were muffled by the persistence of old forms. Superficially much of European society remained unchanged between 1500 and 1800. Yet the economic realities underlying changed a great deal. Rural life had already begun to show this in some countries before 1500. As agriculture became more and more a matter of business, traditional rural society had to change. Forms were usually preserved. Although feudal lordship still existed in France in the 1780s, it was by then less a social reality than an economic device.
欧洲大致沿着易北河一分为二。在西方，非专业国家到1800年缓慢地向更加开放的社会形式发展。东部是统治农业社会的威权政府，少数土地所有者在很大程度上受到束缚的农民中享有巨大权力。在这个地区，城镇并不像西方几个世纪以来那样繁荣。由于农奴制的存在，这些岛屿往往是农村海域中负担过重的岛屿，无法从农村吸引到所需的劳动力。在波兰和俄罗斯的大片土地上，甚至连货币经济都几乎不存在。后来的欧洲历史在很大程度上隐含在东西方的这种差异中。在16世纪到18世纪这段时间里，曾经强大的国家排名下降了，这些国家包括西班牙、瑞典、荷兰和奥斯曼帝国。这导致了奥匈帝国、英国、法国、普鲁士和俄罗斯等新兴大国的崛起。他们崛起的因素包括地理位置、金融体系、军事战略和一种新的官僚制度。 Laws ensured the people¹s security , whereas religion did not interfere. Furthermore a new form of government was introduced, where there was more than just an exclusive group at power. With these changes a new system of modern bureaucracy began to rise. With that a major contradiction seemed to come up. How could capitalism, promoting free enterprise, and bureaucracy, which was a complex system of regulations and restrictions, coexist? However, taking a closer look at today¹s capitalistic societies one can clearly detect an advantage of that constellation. In Germany for example the capitalistic business world is strongly restricted by government regulations, decreasing the companies¹ profits, but benefiting society. In Brazil, on the other hand, where the so called “capitalismo salvage” prevails, the business world lives of the people, leaving them in poor conditions. The ³Treaty of Utrecht² benefited most of central Europe by establishing a balance of power and restoring peace. Russia benefited of Sweden¹s decline, and a large bureaucratic machinery collected a lot of taxes. Ivan the Terrible build up an extremely efficient system of espionage, which preserved his own power and increased state revenues. Likewise, Prussia prospered from its modern legal system, its strong state apparatus, where bureaucrats were state servants with some duties and many privileges. Prussia was also known for its disciplined army with advanced weapons. One could say that Prussia was a very well organized efficient power.
奥匈帝国也能在很长一段时间内保持大国地位。由于君主和人民之间的权力分立，官僚机构仍然有效。在这种情况下，金融、地理和军事战略的因素对这个组织的崛起并没有那么重要。法国保持了一个有效和理性的官僚机构，由与国王一起作为国家权威的皇家官员组成。税收的征收是直接的，并由官僚机构严格执行。虽然法国是一个杰出的大国，但它也面临着许多问题。他们的军事战略极其薄弱。用于国防的收入分配被陆海两国瓜分;在这两个地区建立一支平庸的军队。因此，法国无法转向进攻。 The taxes collected were not enough to uphold the maintenance of the state. France’s financial situation was inferior to that of England’s since they had no system of credit which England already developed. France also relied heavily on the importation of goods from colonies. This constant trade drained the economy because it called for a strong navy which was not possible. England became superior to France in many ways. This was largely due to the industrial revolution that made England a powerful force while France suffered because of structural problems. England experienced success in the coal, iron, textile, and steel industry. England was the leading nation in Europe in mining and heavy manufacturing. Then came more innovations such as the invention of the steam engine in 1712. This success led only to more prosperity in many areas. The rise of the mentioned powers was greatly influenced by the adaptation of a new system of bureaucracy. This new system utilized at least one of the important factors that brought about the rise of these nations: finance, geography, or military strategy. England proves to be the best example of this modern bureaucratic system because it used all three elements while striving for maximum efficiency and power.
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